A systematic review of reliability and objective criterion- related validity of physical activity questionnaires | International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. This systematic review covered the most recent 1. We identified 3. 1 studies that adequately tested newly developed PAQs for both validity and reliability during this period. Original Research. Development and Validation of a Computer Delivered Physical Activity Questionnaire (CDPAQ) for Children. This suggests that whilst assessing physical activity by means of objective monitoring has become widespread also when examining population levels of activity [1. PAQs remain an active area of research and are now generally considered complementary to any objective measure. Several previous reviews have assessed the reliability and validity of PAQs with a special focus on their overall performance [9], or performance in specific age groups [1. Conversely, we compared whether newly developed PAQs performed better than older PAQs, as this will inform researchers and practitioners when choosing an existing PAQ or developing a new instrument for assessing physical activity. We therefore comprehensively summarized the results to allow an adequate appraisal of the existing PAQs performance across domains and physical activity intensities. In concordance with previous reviews [1. Developing new PAQs requires careful consideration of the study design in terms of target population, sample size, age group, recall period, dimension and intensity of PA, relative and absolute validity, standardized quality criteria and appropriate comparison measures. The lack of formulating a priori hypotheses was recently highlighted as a limitation in most studies examining the validity of PAQs [1. Since the comprehensive review by Kriska and Caspersen [9], it is apparent that more appropriate criterion methods, in particular accelerometry, have been used to test the validity of PAQs. Yet, a considerable number of studies were excluded from the present review due to an inappropriate criterion method (e. Many studies reported reliability and validity results for existing and well established questionnaires, which suggests that these instruments are still frequently used. Importantly, newly developed PAQs do not seem to perform any better than existing instruments in terms of reliability and validity. Unfortunately, we were not able to conduct a formal meta- analysis due to differences in reported outcomes, different criterion measures and different time frames between questionnaires. Total energy expenditure (TEE) was frequently used as the outcome measure of the PAQ and the validity scores from these types of instruments are usually high. However, the results from many of these studies should be interpreted carefully. Computer Delivered Physical Activity Questionnaire: Previous day: CHAMPS. Physical Activity Questionnaire for Elderly Japanese: Typical week last month: PASE. ARP's former staff have moved to the new Healthcare Delivery Research Program. PAQ Validation Studies. PAQ - physical activity questionnaire. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. Computer-delivered physical activity. delivered physical activity questionnaire. The computer-delivered lunchtime. Test-retest reliability of a preadolescent environmental access to physical activity questionnaire. BMC Public Health. Measuring Physical Activity in a Cardiac Rehabilitation Population Using a Smartphone. delivered physical activity questionnaire. Computer Science. This is because TEE from any self- report incorporates an estimate of resting energy expenditure (REE) generally calculated from body weight, sex and age. REE explains most of the variation in TEE and, consequently, high correlations may be generated when comparing TEE from self- report with measured or estimated TEE from the criterion method. This is particularly problematic when those same predictions of REE are used by both the criterion method and the self- reported calculation of energy expenditure. Therefore, other outputs (e. In these studies correlations between the criterion measure and self- reported PA are considerably weaker than those for TEE, although the concerning PAQs may still be considered valid as demonstrated in some studies [3. The notion of validity, however, is a matter of degree, rather than an all- or- nothing determination. The validity correlation coefficients from the vast majority of existing and newly developed PAQs were considered poor to moderate and usually only acceptable when results were presented as Pearson or Spearman correlation coefficients. This suggests that most PAQs may be valid for ranking individuals’ behaviour whereas their absolute validity is limited to quantify PA. Although our summary of the correlations in a single median value should be interpreted with caution, we did not observe any substantial difference between newly and existing PAQs. This may suggest that, despite considerable effort, accurate and precise self- report physical activity instruments are still scarce [1. Many of the newly developed instruments collected information in various domains of physical activity including transportation and housework. Despite this, it appears almost impossible to obtain a valid estimation of a highly variable behaviour such as free- living physical activity by self- report. While results from large scale observational cohort studies have convincingly demonstrated the beneficial effects of self- reported physical activity on various health outcomes including all- cause mortality, coronary and cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality, some types of cancer, and type 2 diabetes, the detailed dose–response associations are still unknown [1. Increased sample size is usually considered to improve precision but may not overcome issues about accuracy. Further, a large sample size does not overcome misclassification due to differential measurement error. Therefore, future studies should consider including an objective measure of physical activity in addition to self- report or consider recommendations to reduce self- report error [1. With few exceptions, most PAQs reviewed showed acceptable to good reliability with only minor differences between existing and newly developed PAQs. The median reliability correlations were acceptable to good in youth (0. PAQs; and marginally higher for newly developed PAQs in youth (0. However, only 3 of 1. PAQs [2. 1, 2. 3, 2. For existing PAQs, median validity correlations were poor to acceptable in youth (0. PAQs in youth (0. Only four of the reviewed questionnaires, the IPAQ- s (existing) [8. FPACQ (existing) [1. PDPAR (existing) [6. RPAR (new) [2. 1] showed acceptable to good results for both reliability and validity. Sedentary behaviour appeared to be one of the most difficult domains to assess with questionnaires as demonstrated by the poor correlations with objectively measured sedentary time, although arguably, there are also limitations of the criterion measures, which contribute to poorer agreement between methods. About one third (n = 1. PAQs assessed both validity and reliability for sedentary behaviour. PAQs, respectively. Accuracy of PA recall may be increased at the second retest administration by an increased physical activity awareness as a result of completing the questionnaire previously [1. Many of the reviewed studies did not specify details about their reliability testing, making it difficult to distinguish test- retest reliability of the instrument from a measure of stability of physical activity. It is therefore complex to assign the correlations to either the reliability of the instrument or to the stability of the behaviour of the participant. Assessing test- retest reliability for a last seven day PAQ is generally more straight forward compared to a PAQ assessing usual or last year physical activity. This is because when examining the reliability of a last seven days instrument the respondents should be prompted to report their PA during exactly the same week at two different occasions separated in time. However, this must be weighed against administering the test and retest too close in time that the respondent remembers the answers given to the first administration, resulting in inflation of reliability estimates from correlated error. Several other study details than timeframe of recall can be identified to have a marked influence on the study results, such as socio- cultural background, sex, age, literacy, and cognitive abilities. The DLW method is usually considered the most accurate criterion method available for measuring TEE and PAEE. However, as discussed above, when using the DLW method and other objective methods which provide outputs in TEE as the criterion instrument, individual variability in body weight needs to be considered. It is therefore recommended that data from these methods should be expressed as PAEE, with and without normalisation for body weight in subsequent validation studies. Combined heart rate and movement sensing may be more accurate than either of the methods used alone for measuring time spent at different intensity levels [3. However, most of the newly developed PAQs used a single accelerometer mounted at the hip as the criterion method, possibly due to its reasonable costs and feasibility in large study groups. Accelerometry also has some inherent limitations including its inability to accurately assess the intensity of specific types such as weight- bearing activities, cycling, and swimming [3. Further, the choice of somewhat arbitrary cut- off points [1. The use of accelerometers is especially problematic to validate time spent in different intensities of physical activity from PAQs and this also hampers comparison of studies [3. Usually criterion measures assess overall PA (e. MVPA, PAEE) which precludes a direct test of the validity of self- reported domain specific activity (e. It is therefore not surprising that some PAQs [e. More research is therefore needed to compare time stamped criterion data with domain specific self- reported activity and to develop criterion instruments which can accurately categorise types of activities. Adopting a conceptual framework for physical activity [1. PAQs [1. 22, 1. 23] is highly recommended. Pearson and Spearman correlations may not be the most appropriate statistical methods to use for reporting results on the validity of PAQs. ICC is considered a more appropriate method for continuous measures on the same scale, whereas weighted kappa is a better choice of method for categorical measures [1. When reporting validation results researchers are encouraged to report absolute validity in terms of mean bias with limits of agreement as well as the error structure of the instrument across the measurement range.
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Character and Traits in Leadership. Managers are people who do things right, while leaders are people who do the right thing. â Warren Bennis, Ph.D. Teen Leadership Activities. Leadership activities for teens will help them find a self identity as well as work collectively with other kids their age. According to. Free character education resources for K-12 teachers, coaches, and youth group leaders. Includes discussion questions, writing assignments, learning activities. Now. com
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Thoughts - Leadership. Now. com "Leadership is the capacity and will to rally men and women to a common purpose and the character which inspires confidence." â Bernard Montgomery "The respect that leadership must have requires that one's ethics be without question. A leader not only stays above the line between right and wrong, he stays well clear of the gray areas." â G. Alan Bernard "Nearly all men can stand adversity, but if you want to test a man's character, give him power." â Abraham Lincoln "Never, for the sake of peace and quiet, deny your own experience or convictions." â Dag Hammarskjold "We aim to develop physique, mentality and character in our students; but because the first two are menaces without the third, the greatest of these is character." â Joseph Dana Allen, Headmaster â Heraclitus "Character is power." â Booker T. Washington "You can not dream yourself into a character; you must hammer and forge yourself one." â James A. Froude "God grant that men of principle shall be our principal men." â Thomas Jefferson "The force of character is cummulative." â Ralph Waldo Emerson "Character is the indelible mark that determines the only true value of all people and all their work." â Orison Sweet Marden "Character is power; it makes friends, draws patronage and support and opens the way to wealth, honor and happiness." â J. Howe "Successful leadership is not about being tough or soft, sensitive or assertive, but about a set of attributes. First and foremost is character" â Warren Bennis "Dreams are the touchstones of our character" â Henry David Thoreau "Character is the firm foundation stone upon which one must build to win respect. Just as no worthy building can be erected on a weak foundation, so no lasting reputation worthy of respect can be built on a weak character." â R. C. Samsel "No man can climb out beyond the limitations of his own character." â John Morley "Good character is more to be praised than outstanding talent. Most talents are to some extent a gift. Good character, by contrast, is not given to us. We have to build it piece by pieceâby thought, choice, courage and determination." â John Luther "While you, the leader, can teach many things, character is not taught easily to adults who arrive at your desk lacking it. Be cautious about taking on reclamation projects regardless of the talent they may possess. Have the courage to make character count among the qualities you seek in others." â John Wooden "It is easier to fight for one's principles than to live up to them." â Alfred Adler "Every man has three charactersâthat which he exhibits, that which he has, and that which he thinks he has." â Alphonse Karr "The assumption of authority brings out the leader's inner world." â M. A. Soupios and Panos Mourdoukoutas, The Ten Golden Rules of Leadership "In the last analysis, what we are communicates far more eloquently than anything we say or do." â Stephen Covey "The forbearing use of power does not only form a touchstone; but the manner in which an individual enjoys certain advantages over others is a test of a true gentleman. The power which the strong have over the weak, the magistrate over the employed, the educated over the unlettered, the experienced over the confiding, even the clever over the silly; the forbearing and inoffensive use of all this power and authority, or the total abstinence from it, when the case admits it, will show the gentleman in a plain light. The gentleman does not needlessly and unnecessarily remind an offender of a wrong he may have committed against him. He can only forgive; he can forget; and he strives for that nobleness of self and mildness of character which imparts sufficient strength to let the past be put the past." â General Robert E. Lee "Mountaintops inspire leaders but valleys mature them." â Winston Churchill "The highest reward for manâs toil is not what he gets for it but what he becomes by it." â John Ruskin "To be thrown upon oneâs own resources is to be cast into the very lap of fortune; for our faculties then undergo a development and display an energy of which they were previosly unsusceptible." â Benjamin Franklin . Character is not built in men by hiding them from temptation, it is by teaching them to scorn it."â Emmett P. Le. Compte
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Initiate video calls over Wi- Fi or cellular to any Face. Time- enabled device. Face. Time video. Initiate video calls over Wi- Fi or cellular to any Face. Time- enabled device. Face. Time video. Initiate video calls over Wi- Fi or cellular to any Face. Time- enabled device. Face. Time video. Initiate video calls over Wi- Fi or cellular to any Face. Time- enabled device. Face. Time video. Initiate video calls over Wi- Fi or cellular to any Face. Time- enabled device. Chalcone synthase and its functions in plant resistance. Division of Pharmacognosy, Section Metabolomics, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands 2. Traditional Pharmacy Department, Hanoi Pharmacy University, Hanoi, Vietnam 3. Section Plant Cell Physiology, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands Corresponding author. Received 2. 01. 0 Oct 1. Accepted 2. 01. 1 Apr 1. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract. Chalcone synthase (CHS, EC 2. Besides being part of the plant developmental program the CHS gene expression is induced in plants under stress conditions such as UV light, bacterial or fungal infection. CHS expression causes accumulation of flavonoid and isoflavonoid phytoalexins and is involved in the salicylic acid defense pathway. This review will discuss CHS and its function in plant resistance. Keywords: Chalcone synthase, Flavonoids, Plant resistance. However, the lineage of the enzyme chalcone isomerase (CHI) remained a quandary. The active site of AtCHI retains residues important for catalytic activity, and AtCHI catalyzes the in vitro formation of (2S)-naringenin. Introduction. During their life cycle, plants respond actively to stress by producing phytoalexins and other stress metabolites. Such stress can result from injuries caused by the attack of insects and microbes or by mechanical wounding, and can induce many distinctive biochemical changes. These include the production of protective compounds either at the site of injury, or systemically in distant unwounded tissues (Kuhn 1. Bowles 1. 99. 0; Ryan 1. In plants, phenylalanine is derived from the precursor chorismate and leads to the flavonoid, phenylpropanoid and stilbenoid biosynthetic pathways. All are interesting in connection with plant defense but in this review we will focus on the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway and its key enzyme chalcone synthase (CHS). CHS is a member of the plant polyketide synthase superfamily, which also includes stilbene synthase (STS), acridone synthase, pyrone synthase, bibenzyl synthase, and p- coumaroyltriacetic acid synthase (Sanchez 2. Chalcone synthases, the most well known representatives of this family, provide the starting materials for a diverse set of metabolites (flavonoids) which have different and important roles in flowering plants, such as providing floral pigments, antibiotics, UV protectants and insect repellents (Hahlbrock and Scheel 1. Flavonoids also have benefits for human health, as they exhibit amongst others cancer chemopreventive (Jang et al. Edwards et al. 1. Gehm et al. 1. 99. Li et al. 1. 99. 5) antioxidant (Jang et al. Zwaagstra et al. 1. Flavonoids are synthesized via the phenylpropanoid and polyketide pathway, which starts with the condensation of one molecule of Co. A- ester of cinnamic acid or derivatives such as coumaric or ferulic acid, and three molecules of malonyl- Co. Chalcone synthase activity in sorghum mesocotyls inoculated with Colletotrichumgraminicola. Krol AR, Stuitje AR, Mol JNM. Cloning of the two chalcone flavanone isomerase genes from Petunia hybfida. A, yielding a naringenin chalcone as major product. This reaction is carried out by the enzyme chalcone synthase (CHS). The chalcone is isomerised to a flavanone by the enzyme chalcone flavanone isomerase (CHI). From these central intermediates, the pathway diverges into several branches, each resulting in a different class of flavonoids. Flavanone 3- hydroxylase (F3. H) catalyzes the stereospecific 3ß- hydroxylation of (2. S)- flavanones to dihydroflavonols. For the biosynthesis of anthocyanins, dihydroflavonol reductase (DFR) catalyzes the reduction of dihydroflavonols to flavan- 3,4- diols (leucoanthocyanins), which are converted to anthocyanidins by anthocyanidin synthase (ANS). The formation of glucosides is catalyzed by UDP glucose- flavonoid 3- O- glucosyl transferase (UFGT), which stabilizes the anthocyanidins by 3- O- glucosylation (Harborne and Grayer 1. Bohm 1. 99. 8). An overview of the flavonoid pathway is presented in Fig. 1. Flavonoids play an important role in plant defense, and CHS as the gatekeeper of flavonoid biosynthesis plays an important role in regulating the pathway. In fact CHS gene expression is influenced by many stress and environmental factors such as UV, wounding or pathogen attack (Dixon and Paiva 1.
Gläßgen et al. 1. Ito et al. 1. 99. Flavonoid biosynthetic pathway. ANS anthocyanidin synthase; AS aureusidin synthase; C4. H cinnamate- 4- hydroxylase; CHR chalcone reductase; DFR dihydroflavonol 4- reductase; DMID 7,2′- dihydroxy, 4′- methoxyisoflavanol dehydratase; F3. H flavanone.. In this review we will evaluate the present understanding about CHS and its regulation in plant resistance. Structure and mechanism of chalcone synthase. The chalcone synthase (CHS) enzyme—known as a type III polyketide synthase enzyme (PKS) is structurally and mechanistically the simplest PKS (Schröder 1. Sanchez 2. 00. 8). These enzymes function as homodimeric iterative PKS (monomer size of 4. Da) with two independent active sites that catalyze a series of decarboxylation, condensation, and cyclization reactions (Tropf et al. The three dimensional structure of alfalfa CHS2 was studied intensively by Ferrer et al. The study revealed that each alfalfa CHS2 monomer consists of two structural domains. In the upper domain, there are four amino acids (Cys. Phe. 21. 5, His. 30. Asn. 33. 6) are present at the active site were defined as the catalytic machinery of CHS. The lower domain of CHS has a large active site providing space for the tetraketide required for chalcone formation (i. Co. A and three malonyl- Co. A (Fig. 2) (Jez et al. Production of chalcone requires the condensation of one molecule of p- coumaroyl- Co. A and three malonyl- Co. A molecules which is catalyzed by CHS. It starts with the transfer of a coumaroyl moiety from a p- coumaroyl- Co. A starter molecule to an active site cysteine (Cys. Lanz et al. 1. 99. Next, a series of condensation reactions of three acetate units derived from three malonyl- Co. A molecules, each proceeding through an acetyl- Co. A carbanion derived from malonyl- Co. A decarboxylation, extends the polyketide intermediate. Following generation of the thioester- linked tetraketide, a regiospecific intramolecular Claisen condensation forms a new ring system to yield chalcone. In plants, chalcone isomerase (CHI) will convert the chalcone to (2. S)- 5,7,4′- trihydroxyflavanone (naringenin); however, spontaneous ring closure in vitro results in mixed enantiomers of naringenin (Hahlbrock et al. Jez et al. 2. 00. In vivo chalcone can convert to narigenin without need of CHI. Four amino acids (Cys. Phe. 21. 5, His. 30. Asn. 33. 6) situated at the intersection of the Co. A- binding tunnel and the active site cavity play an essential and distinct role during malonyl- Co. A decarboxylation and chalcone formation. Cys. 16. 4 plays role as the active- site nucleophile in polyketide formation and elucidate the importance of His. Asn. 33. 6 in the malonyl- Co. A decarboxylation reaction. Phe. 21. 5 may help orient substrates at the active site during elongation of the polyketide intermediate. Jez et al. 2. 00. The general reaction mechanism of CHS is presented in Fig. 2. Reaction catalyzed by chalcone synthase (CHS). In CHS, three amino acids play key roles in the catalytic functions of type III PKS: Cys. His. 30. 3 and Asn. Several other cyclization reactions are possible besides the one yielding a chalcone. In addition to the starter molecule p- coumaroyl- Co. A, in vitro alfalfa CHS accepts other Co. A- linked thioesters as alternate starter molecules to generate corresponding chalcones, tetraketide lactone, and triketide lactone products (Fig. 3). The substrates can be feruloyl- Co. A, hexanoyl- Co. A, phenylacetyl- Co. A, benzoyl- Co. A, butyryl- Co. A, isobutyryl- Co. A and isovaleryl- Co. A. With the starter substrates p- coumaroyl- Co. A and malonyl- Co. A, CHS catalyzes an intramolecular Claisen condensation yielding the chalcone naringenin. Alfalfa CHS2 and parsley CHS (Hrazdina et al. Co. A as a starter molecule and produce the tetraketide lactone (1b) and methylpyrone as the major products with the triketide lactone (1c) generated as a minor product. With hexanoyl- Co. A, alfalfa CHS2 yields the tetraketide lactone (4b) as the major product, triketide lactone (4c) and methylpyrone are minor products (Jez et al. Parsley CHS accepts butyryl- Co. A and hexanoyl- Co. A as substrates in vitro, which yield, respectively, the chalcone analogues, phlorobutyrophenone (5b) and phlorocaprophenone (4b) at p. H 6. 5 (Schuez et al. Medicago sativa CHS2 accepts phenylacetyl- Co. A as a starter molecule yielding a phlorobenzyl ketone (2a), the chalcone- like product, accounts for less than 1. The overall product distribution with phenylacetyl- Co. A is similar to Scutellaria baicalensis CHS (Morita et al. With benzoyl- Co. A as the starter molecule, alfalfa CHS2 generates phlorobenzophenone (3a) and methylpyrone as the major product, and tetraketide lactone (3b) and triketide lactone (3c) as minor products (Jez et al. The recombinant hop CHS1 expressed in E. Co. A and isovaleryl- Co. A substrates, which produced as main products phloroisobutyrophenone (6b) and phloroisovalerophenone (7b) (Zuurbier et al. Novák et al. 2. 00. Alternate starter molecules and their in vitro reaction products catalyzed by CHSThe steady- state kinetic parameters of Medicago sativa CHS2 for p- coumaroyl- Co. A, malonyl- Co. A, feruloyl- Co. A, hexanoyl- Co. A, phenylacetyl- Co. A and benzoyl- Co. A have been determined, these are presented in Table 1 (Jez et al. Novák et al. 2. 00. Control of CHS activity. In plants, CHS is activated by a wide range of environmental and developmental stimuli. Theoretically, there are many ways to regulate CHS activity in vivo, from metabolic control to the control of initiation of transcription of the CHS gene (Martin 1. Metabolic control. There are many studies showing that CHS is inhibited noncompetitively by flavonoid pathway products like naringenin, chalcone naringenin and the other end products of Co. A esters. For example, the parsley CHS is 5. M naringenin and 1. M Co. A esters (Hinderer and Seitz 1. Kreuzaler and Hahlbrock 1. CHS in vitro (Peters et al. CHS at 1. 00 μM (Hinderer and Seitz 1. It seems that flavonoids accumulate in the cytosol to a level that blocks CHS activity to avoid toxic levels for the plant (Whitehead and Dixon 1. Query the Active Directory for all users with a custom attribute. I'm using a custom User. Principal. Ex- class since I want to query the Active Directory for a custom attribute "cost. Center". The custom User. Principal. Ex- Class therefore has a Directory. Property("cost. Center") added. As seen in the following figure, special characters are allowed in organizational unit names in Active Directory. As seen in the figure, there is an organizational unit with the name *Atlanta. To retrieve this. The basic and long- running (3 minutes) version looks like this: // create domain context. Principal. Context context = new Principal. Context(Context. Type. Domain, "my. Domain. Controller"). // define the query- by- example principal. User. Principal qbe. User = new User. Principal(context). Principal. Searcher searcher = new Principal. Searcher(qbe. User). Find. All()). //do incredible stuff here. Now, using a customized class "User. Principal. Ex" that is extended for the custom attribute "cost. Center": User. Principal. Ex qbe. User = new User. I was working with a customer this week who was asking me how to query Active Directory for valid, active users accounts that were not service accounts. I made a couple of assumptions; an active account would not be. The Domain column is populated by the value of the domain parameter passed in to the GetUserGroups method described above. The AccountName and Group columns are set from the Active Directory attributes samaccountname and. To move an object (eg a user) in Active Directory you need it’s full path which is something like (“CN=User,OU=MyOU,DC=MyDomain,DC=local”). Every object in Active Directory has this stored in a propery adsPath. So we use. Active Directory Query software to quickly find any required information from Active Directory. I'm trying to search active directory users whose manager's username is given in the search request, but I always get 0 records regardless of the manager's username I pass. To achieve this, I exec. Active Directory (AD) is a directory service that Microsoft developed for Windows domain networks. It is included in most Windows Server operating systems as a set of processes and services. [1] [2] Initially, Active Directory. Principal. Ex(context). User. cost. Center = "1. But what I really need would be to query for all users that just have a cost. Center (not all do so). So my question is: How to use an extended "Query- By- Example" principal to search for principals that just have a custom attribute? Home. Close Reading provides current resources for educators who strive to help students read closely, analytically, and above all, thoughtfully. Find close reading lesson plans and teaching resources. From close reading worksheets to close reading activities videos. Lesson Planet helps me find engaging. Student Activities. videos, and reproducibles in a daily blog by teachers. See Past Bloggers. Alycia. 'Close reading is a careful and purposeful rereading of. Home > Uses > Common Core State Standards > Close Reading. of close reading to the student. Teachers help students. skills to activities and. 10 Tips for Close Reading Activities. added piece is very valuable to all teachers. 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The nerve fibers of the corticospinal tract travel down through the internal capsule down to the medulla. At the inferior level of the medulla, 7. . the direct and indirect pathways. it has recently been demonstrated that optogenetic activation of striatal direct and indirect pathway projection neurons produces different cellular responses in SNr neurons. International Foreign and Caribbean medical schools. Direct and Indirect. Both pathways begin in the cortex and both pathways converge on the. activation of the indirect pathway by the striatum causes a relative. Neural Pathways Pyramidal system – Direct Activation Pathway. The pathways are indirect, as opposed to the direct pathways of the pyramidal system. Basal Ganglia Direct and Indirect Pathways. Nature 494, 238–242 (14 February 2013) Concurrent activation of striatal direct and indirect pathways during action initiation. Section on In Vivo Neural Function, Laboratory for. Vocabulary words for Motor Speech: Indirect Activation Pathways. Includes studying games and tools such as flashcards. Concurrent activation of striatal direct and indirect pathways during action initiation. Guohong Cui 1, 7. If the direct and indirect pathways exert opposing effects on movement, as proposed in the classical model. Role of Direct vs. Indirect Pathways from the Motor Cortex to. development of the direct connection from the motor cortex to spinal motoneurons. Direct and indirect pathways from the. Those that cross over continue down the spinal cord and are collectively known as the lateral corticospinal tract, and these fibers exert contralateral control. The remaining 1. 0- 3. These will continue to travel down the spinal cord until they reach the level of the muscles they will serve, where they will then synapse with the nuclei of lower motor neurons. The nerve fibers of the corticobulbar tract initially follow the same pathway as the corticospinal tracts. However, these will begin to synapse with the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves beginning at the level of the upper pons. These fibers will deccusate at various levels of the brainstem. Of interest is that the nuclei of the facial nerve receive bilateral innervation for some muscles and unilateral representation for others. Generally speaking, the upper face is more bilaterally innervated, and the bottom half is more unilaterally innervated (but by contralateral fibers). Extrapyramidal system – Indirect Activation Pathway. The pyramidal system was the primary pathway for voluntary movement. The extrapyramidal system is another motor system that is important for control of movements. Neuronal activity for this motor system begins in the cerebral cortex and ultimately exerts an influence on the lower motor neurons. The pathways are indirect, as opposed to the direct pathways of the pyramidal system. The long axons of the corticospinal tract and corticobulbar tract make only one synapse with the lower motor neuron, so the pyramidal system is called monosynaptic. The extrapyramidal system, however, is polysynaptic. The major extrapyramidal nuclei are the basal ganglia. Remember that the basal ganglia is composed of the Globus Pallidus, Putamen, and Caudate Nucleus. Together, the Globus Pallidus and Putamen are called the Lenticular Nucleus. Together, all three are called the Corpus Striatum. Other structures related to the extrapyramidal system include the substantia nigra, red nucleus, subthalamic nucleus, and reticular formation of the mesencephalon. The cerebellum is also thought of as contributing to the extrapyramidal system. The extrapyramidal system works by modifying neural impulses that originate in the cerebral cortex. Impulses generated at the primary motor strip are sent via the extrapyramidal fibers to the basal ganglia. In a complex network of pathways, the structures of the basal ganglia modify impulses and send information to each other. Some fibers will then be directed down to synapse with the lower motor neurons. Other fibers are routed through the thalamus and back up to the cortex. The role of the extrapyramidal system includes the following: (1) selective activation of movements and supression of others (2) Initiation of movements (3) setting rate and force of movements (4) coordinating movements. Damage to the extrapyramidal system, but especially damage to the basal ganglia, will result in movement disorders known as dyskinesias. Different types of dyskinesias include: Myoclonus - characterized by involuntary single or repetitive jerks of a body part. If the jerks are repetitive, they can be rhythmic or non- rythmic. They can be isolated to one muscle group or a number of muscles at the same time. These movements can occur spontaneously, but also to stimuli (visual, tactile or auditory). Hiccups are a form of myoclonus (brief spasm of diaphragm.). Tics - these are rapid, repeatingly coordinated or patterned movemetns that are under partial control by the affected person. Often, the person will relate that they have an irresistible urge to perform the movements. They can often supress the movements temporarily. Simple tics may appear similar to dystonia or myoclonus. Complex tics are coordinated and can involve jumping, noises, lip smacking, and other rapid, repeated movements. Chorea - characterized by rapid, involuntary, random, purposless movements of a body part. Can be present at rest, during sustained postures, and during movement. Can be subtle or obvious. These movements can often be modified by the person after initial onset so that they are made to appear intentional in order to cover them up. Ballism - characterized by gross, abrupt contractions of axial and proximal muscles of the extremities that can produce flailing. Athetosis - a relatively slow, writhing, purposless movement of a body part. Athetosis and choreaic movements often combine with eachother, and called choreoathetosis. Athetosis is a major category of the effects of Cerebal Palsey. Dystonia - a slow form of hyperkinesia characterized by involuntary abnormal postures resulting from excessive co- contraction of antagonistic muscles. Writers cramp is a form of this. Spasm - a general term that designates a variety of muscular contractions. Tonic spasms are prolonged. Clonic spasms are repetitive, have a rapid onset, and are brief. Tremor - Rhythmic (periodic) movement of a body part. Resting tremors occur when a body part is at rest. Direct, indirect and hyperdirect pathways are visualized in different colors. The direct pathway of movement is a neuronal circuit within the central nervous system. Before activation of the direct pathway. Postural tremor occurs when the body part is maintained against gravity. Action tremor occurs during movement. Terminal tremor occurs as the body part nears a target. Can be caused by cerebellar circuit problems. |
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